Under Control

Overshadowing the Negative: The American Industrial Revolution

By: Patrick Murphy

Industrialization changed the face of America when it first made it’s impression in the 19^th century, namely the 1850s and later. The Industrial Revolution had already swept across Europe and then made it across the Atlantic to the United States. Industrialization had many long reaching effects on the United States, including the economic difference between the Northern and Southern states, one of the causes of the Civil War. The advent of factories and mass production kicked the Northern states into high gear, but also led to bad relations with the South, where the economy was based solely on agriculture. Industrialization also linked the states together with railroads, allowed goods to be made quicker and sold at a more rapid pace through manufacturing, and improved the economy of the nation. The beneficial effects of industrialization have longer lasting and more important impacts than the disadvantageous effects.

The period of American industrialization served as a mark of independence for the young nation. By being able to produce its own goods, America no longer had to rely on foreign nations to acquire manufactured materials. Andrew Carnegie was an entrepreneur who used the new business practices to improve America’s railroads without the help of England. Instead of importing the steel, Carnegie bought the mines that produced it. He had direct access to the resources he needed, so the government did not have to rely on a European nation. In his memoirs, Thomas Jefferson wrote “He, therefore, who is now against domestic manufacture must be for reducing us either to dependence on that foreign nation, or to be clothed in skins and to live like wild beasts in dens and caverns”.[i] Jefferson also hints on the advancement in society that industrialization brings. Once America is heavily manufacturing goods, they will be above the pack of countries with agricultural-based economies. This idea of American superiority began to rise in the works of Phillip Schaff[ii] and James Fenimore Cooper,[iii] and it started with industrialization. This began another social revolution in the United States.

Mechanization also allowed the states to be connected as they never had before: through railroads. An intricate railroad system was constructed between 1820 and 1850. The effects of this network touched upon economical and social factors. The connection between the industrial North and the agricultural South helped trade between business owners and plantation owners, and the connection allowed the states to feel more united with their neighbors and beyond. In a report to Congress, the economic effects of railroads were described in detail.[iv] This report analyzed the cost of railroads, as well as how shipping costs are calculated. The report tracks the cost of wheat transportation, which was $22.27 per ton. It also recorded the cost of land needed to build the railroads on. This report marked the beginning of inter-state shipping costs. The railroad network was a huge step in American progress, and was one of the more influential aspects of industrialization in the United States.

The economy is what was most affected by industrialization, more so in the North than the South. In the North, factories were the main source of jobs and economical growth. People worked at machines that sped up the process of making good. Instead of products being hand made, they were now mass-produced in factories. In his book Recent Economic Changes and their Effect on the Production and Distribution of Wealth and the Well-Being of Society, David Wells wrote “Machinery is now recognized as essential to cheap production. Nobody can produce effectively and economically without it, and what was formerly known as domestic manufacture is now almost obsolete.” This statement summed up the idea the every factory owner had in his head at the time. Machines were the open door to success in the industrialized economy. Wells also writes on the subject of employment in these factories. Later on in his book, he writes “The whole number of employees in the cotton mills of the United States, according to the census of 1880, was 172,544; of this number, 59,685 were men and 112,859 women and children. In Massachusetts, out of 61,246 employees in the cotton mills, 22,180 are males; 31,496, women; and 7,570, children.” Factories created a shocking amount of jobs in American, allowing people to buy houses and consume because of a regular salary. The factories needed all the workers they could get to ship more products out. This mass-production fueled the economy because it allowed more to be sold and traded internationally. Although the quality of these products went down, the quaintly skyrocketed. That did not seem to matter, as profit was the highest of priorities.

Industrialization was all about success and profit. The workers in the factories suffered from long hours, safety hazards, and low wages. Writer Carroll D. Wright studied the effects on the mentalities of the individual worker in her writings.[v] This kind of neglect of the individual provoked the drastic decrease in product quality, as well an increase in workers discontent.[vi] The safety hazards cost many workers their limbs, and on some occasions, their lives. Records prove that thousands of workers died in the factories, more so than in Britain. Miners also died by the thousands. In a British study, researchers found that over five thousand American miners died between the years of 1890 and 1894, while just over one thousand died in Britain. The machines were economical, but they were also enormously unsafe. The increasingly low wages also forced a decline in motivation for the individual to do a good job on his or her part. The work was hard and sometimes immoral, but it was needed. Without industrialization, employment and crime would have increased tenfold. Although industrialization had negative effects on individual men, women, and children, the nation as a whole benefited.

Industry shaped the way the United States would function economically as well as socially and politically. It was a new world in America, and it effected each individual in any way, from the low level worker to the factory owner, to the soldier fighting for the North or South over differences that could not be solved any other way. America underwent an immense change in the 19^th century, more than any other it endured since its birth in 1776. This time period changed America in a way that had never been experienced before. Both good and bad, the country was molded into what it would later become and be able to achieve. Industrialization cause much pain and poverty, but the nation as a whole benefited deeply.

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[i] Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 1829

[ii] America, A Sketch of the Political, Social, and Religious Character of the United States of North America, 1855

[iii] The American Democrat, 1838

[iv] 32 Congress, 1 Session, Senate Executive Document No. 112, 1852

[v] Journal of Social Science “The Factory System as an Element in Civilization,” 1882

[vi] The New Era, or The Coming Kingdom, Josiah Strong, 1893

Sympathies Unheard: The Narrative of “Benito Cereno”

By: Patrick Murphy

In the 1850s, Herman Melville published his most famous and most recognized. One of these, “Benito Cereno,” is the story of a captain who boards a Spanish Slave ship that is stranded on a lonely coast. Published in 1856, “Benito Cereno” is still regarded as an important piece of literature in which the horrors of the slave trade are explored. Melville’s stirring and sometimes disturbing descriptions of the treatment of slaves show the reader the realism of the trade in a very visceral sense. These descriptions make an attempt to evoke a sense of pathos over the reader, but in this it does not succeed. Although Melville tries to show sympathy towards the slaves, his efforts are overshadowed by his latent superiority.

The story revolves around two European captains, so the portrayal of slaves will not be a positive one. An unnamed narrator describes what the main character, Captain Amasa Delano, sees. He is accompanied throughout his stay on the ship by the captain of said ship and the title character, Benito Cereno. Melville describes the slaves as these men would see them, but one could say that this viewpoint wasn’t necessarily difficult for Melville. When Delano first boards the San Dominick, he observes the mix of black and white faces he sees. Later, as he is guided about by Cereno, he sees two blacks making oakum, a tarred fiber, and the narrator notes that “All six, unlike the generality, had the raw aspect of unsophisticated Africans.” This statement already marks the view that Melville holds for the slaves, although it is suppressed quite well. When Delano is in Cereno’s room, Babo (who appears to be Cereno’s personal servant) is looked upon like an obedient dog. Delano watches Babo, and the narrator notes, “Here Babo, changing his previous grin of mere animal humour into an intelligent smile, not ungratefully eyed his master.” The way the narrator shows Babo is very demeaning, and this effect last through his descriptions of the conditions that the slaves are forced to live in while being shipped across the planet. His affect is somewhat diminished by this portrayal.

The plight of the slaves is described, but even then Melville’s superior tone provokes the reader to feel little or no pity for the victims of the injustice he tries to exploit. While Captain Delano is exploring the San Dominick, he sees the slave’s living quarters, and the narrator describes them in what is one of the more saddening passages of the story. “His attention had been drawn to a slumbering Negress, partly disclosed through the lace-work of some rigging, lying, with youthful limbs carelessly disposed, under the lee of the bulwarks, like a doe in the shade of a woodland rock. Sprawling at her lapped breasts was her wide-awake fawn, stark naked, its black little body half lifted from the deck, crosswise with its dam's; its hands, like two paws, clambering upon her; its mouth and nose ineffectually rooting to get at the mark; and meantime giving a vexatious half-grunt, blending with the composed snore of the Negress.” Melville writes this, but no emotion or opinion is evident, like it was in his descriptions of the oakum cutters and Babo. Here he is merely stating what is there, but not expressing any wrongdoing. The narrator appears to believe that the blacks are no better than the conditions they live in. The narrator can describe the stupidity of the slaves, but he cannot express the pain that the slaves may be feeling? That part does not even cross the mind of the storyteller. Babo is a prominent slave in the story, and the way he is treated is another nail in the coffin of Melville’s attempted sympathies. He is like Cereno’s lapdog, and he is treated no better than one. Babo’s portrayal (as well as name) makes the sympathies of Melville seem forced and unnecessary. It’s as if Melville threw them in to avoid looking heartless in the eyes of his readers.

Although a well-written book, the emotion Melville tries to evoke in “Benito Cereno” is a farce. A writer cannot expect to both sympathize and mock a character in his story, especially when trying to get across a serious point. In this case, the moral issue of slavery is brought up, and with it, a broad look at what other industries are doing. The story provokes the reader to think, but at the same time, it cannot be taken seriously. Herman Melville’s attempt at compassion is broken by his arrogant approach.

No End In Sight

By: Patrick Murphy

The United States is in a financial hole, a hole that will take a very long time to climb out of. With it’s constant spending, the government is doing very little to decrease one of the largest debts that the country has seen since its inception. With the billions and billions of dollars heaping up, America is clueless. The politicians do nothing to stop the increase, and the citizens consume more than they need without a second thought. The government’s poor job of handling the situation allows the debt to build up without restriction.

As of November, the National Debt stands at $64.3 billion, which is a decline from the record high of $69 billion. This drop shows some signs of improvement, but even with this decrease, the debt is still increasing at a rate of $781.6 billion a year. This “improvement” is only temporary.

Even more recently, the value of the dollar was surpassed by the Euro, which hit $1.30 as of November twenty fifth. This raises even more concern. Not only does this incredible debt cripple the American economy, but it also allows the economies of other rival nations to expand and become far more stable than our own. This may be the death knell of the economic power of the U.S., unless the government can do something about it. The Bush Administration is downplaying the crisis that is on hand, and covering up the effect that this financial abyss will have on the country as a whole. The government that should be handling this crisis does nothing but keep citizens ignorant of what is happening around them.

The war in Iraq is not helping matters in the least. Every day, the nation’s budget spends billions on a war that has met little success over the past three years. This wasted money puts a solution further and further out of reach. The Bush Administration needs to stop playing peacemaker and focus on the needs of their own country instead of those halfway around the world. By ending the unjust involvement of America in Iraq and using that money to decrease the public debt, there can be an even bigger improvement that the miniscule one that the government is playing off as something of great importance. The corporations will have to take a backseat on Bush’s priorities list and decrease the import of foreign goods while increasing the exports of American-made goods. This way, the debt will be in check and a light can be seen at the end of this long, long tunnel.

How Successful Were Economic Transformations In America?

By: Justin Mahmud

 Throughout the course of history, nations have

competed with one another in the race for economic

supremacy.  Economy is the system in which a nation or

country handles currency and international affairs

involving goods or money, however systems of economy

have not always been as developed and advanced as they

are today. ( Forms of economic transformations have

taken place first).  Such transformations are

necessary in nations who are perceived as powerhouses

in the wild in terms of economy.  A perfect example of

this is our very own nation, the United States.  The

United States has had its’ share of economic

transformations which have helped boost its economic

position amongst other nations.  There have been three

key transformations in America which include trade

(specifically trade for slaves), industrialization and

laissez faire capitalism. All of these have

contributed to the undisputed success of the American

economy. America’s utilization of these economic

transformations have laid the most successful

foundation for nations to follow.

               One of the most controversial but successful economic

transformation in America was the development of the

slave trade involving America with other nations.  The

first real major slave trade was the transatlantic and

triangle trade.  This transatlantic slave trade,

lasting from 1450 to around 1850,   held an incredible

effect on nations such as America, Europe and Africa. 

Trade has always held significant economic meaning to

nations because of the increase of trade brings goods

and money but no trade held more significance to

American economy as the transatlantic slave trade

(triangle trade) did.  This trade involved

manufactured goods from industry, raw materials

(including sugar, cotton, tobacco), and most

importantly, slaves.  Slavery held the key to tone of

the most significant economic transformations.  In

order to acquire these slaves, America was dependent

upon Europe because European traders expand

manufactured goods to Africa in exchange for slaves in

which they traded to America for some of its’ raw

materials.   The amounts of slaves being transported

is staggering(during 1440-1640); nations such as

Portugal and Britain are accountable for having

shipping out over seven million slaves throughout the

transatlantic slave trade.  The region in which these

slaves were being transported from Africa into America

was known as the middle passage.  The slave trade’s

economic impact on America came mostly in the south. 

Southern United States was based on agriculture which

includes farm work which requires workers to proved

labor.  Slavery was the answer to this labor and it

was free. With the addition of slaves there would be a

competition of economic growth within the nation

between the north and the south. There will also be

the addition of entrepreneur-like ideas such as the

profits to cheap or free labor ratio.This allowed

southern United States to prosper economically.  With

the progress of agriculture came economic growth with

more goods for trade and there was an increase of

production (food).  With the constant importation of

slaves into America provided a constant supply of free

labor workers.  It wasn’t until 1807 when Britain

banned the slave trade; 1865 when the United States

abolished slavery and until 1888 when Brazil outlawed

slave trade across the entire American continent that

the slave trade finally died out.  

               Another key economic transformation that took place

in America was industrialization.  The key for

industrialization to become a success in America was

to understand its’ connection to the country’s already

strong agricultural system.  The utilization of

industry for agriculture proved to be successful.  

According to Thomas Weiss, “United States labor force

estimates and economic growth,” had shown that there

was a significant increase in the number of farm

laborers throughout New England, Massachusetts,

Connecticut, Mid-Atlantic, New York, Pennsylvania and

east which was mainly due to the opening of new

industries such as shoe industries and cotton

textiles.  Industrialization was also successful

because although these were many areas for good

farming and agriculture, it does not mean that

farmland is available everywhere.  So in the areas in

which there was no farmland, cotton textiles were

developed; it was later spread to areas which were

prosperous in agriculture.  Cotton textiles involved

the production of cotton (clothing) through

productions of spinning machines which was also a form

of industry.  Clothing was obviously something that

directly brought economic growth through sales and

trade.  This industry was successful because the idea

of profit became key due to the cost of production was

better than their selling price.  The sectionalism of

America had also helped the growth of industry because

the east was so dominant with industry in caused areas

such as the Midwest to try to compete with in turn

creates more industry which equals economic growth. 

This ,however, was not possible until 1840-1860 when

transportation and technology developed which lowered

distribution costs.  Industrialization was a key

economic transformation because it is able to provide

new jobs for our society and allows the United States

to trade with other nations. 

               Another significant economic transformation was the

development of the laissez faire capitalism created by

Adam Smith.  It held strong economic importance, as

evidence it is still the system in place and in use

today.  Laissez Faire was first introduced because

America and other nations were trying to take power

away from controlling rulers or overly powered

governments.  Laissez Faire is a system in which

governments can have no say or involvement with

regulations of private or independent businesses. 

This was key to economic growth because now business

owners were able to manage their businesses in their

own way, one example is they would no longer have to

accept government issued prices, they can now set

prices as they see fit. (more economic freedom).  Some

may argue that this economic equality has potential

for success but also has the same potential for

failure.  Although this may have some truth, Laissez

Faire was a necessary economic transformation for our

economy and democracy. It was necessary because

America has called itself the land of the free while

the free while they emulate the economic systems of

other nations, this form of capitalism will give

America a trait of its own identity.

               Economic transformations such as Laissez Faire

capitalism, industrialization, and slave trade have

all shaped our economy to this date.  Its’ success in

undisputed; the United States has become an economical

powerhouse and a center of trade.  It has laid a path

which is followed and imitated by many other nations. 

Laissez Faire has helped us maintain a balance between

government power and economic power of the individual.

 The slave trade has helped progress economic

development in south United States.  The

industrialization era had helped spread industry to

all ports of the United States (not only the north) to

an industrial power capable of trading with a variety

of manufactured goods.  This all shows the strength as

well as the success of the economic transformations in

the United States. 

(end notes)

   Donald R. Wright , “Journal of American Ethnic

History,” Volume 20, Issue 1 , Fall 2000

  Paul E. Lovejoy, “Transformations in Slavery,”

Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN

  Thomas Weiss, “US Labor Force Estimates and Economic

Growth,”1800-1860, “ American Economic

Growth and Standards of living Before the Civil War,

edited by Robert E.Gallagan and John Joseph Wallis

(Chicago IL University of Chicago Press,1992”

Slaves: Masterminds or Hopeless Captives

By: Justin Mahmud

 Herman Melville’s Benito Cereno is a tale which

illustrates the story of one group of slaves who

wanted to change their fates.  The path of these

slaves throughout history was clear.  Slaves on board

any type of a ship usually, no always, meant that they

were being shipped from one nation to another nation. 

They were treated no better than merchandise or goods.

 Slaves were considered to be of no equivalence to the

white man which was supposed to justify their

treatment.  This however was not the case in Benito

Cereno because the slaves were very intelligent and

were led by Babo, who may be the most intelligent

character in the whole story.  This idea demonstrates

Herman Melville’s belief of the possibilities of what

may have occurred if slaves were educated on any

level.  This transportation of slaves changed the way

America handled commerce and trade of slaves

completely. 

               Herman Melville chooses Captain Amasa Delano as the

narrator and voice throughout the story.  Captain

Delano was captain of the Bachelor’s Delight whaling

ship in 1799 of Massachusetts.  He and his crew were

traveling along the coast of Chile.  This is where he

first sights the “stranger” ship which was San

Dominick.  It was a ship believed to belong to a

Spanish merchantman.  The Spanish were a group who

were heavily involved in slave trade.  Captain Delano

had originally believed this was a ship of distress

and set out to see if it was in need of help.  Once

there, he saw that it held Negro slaves which were

going to be traded, most likely to be part of the

transatlantic slave trade.

               While on board the San Dominick, Captain Delano

discovers a line under the canvas which stated “sequid

vuestro jefe,” which meant follow your leader.  This

line held a very symbolic meaning at the end of the

story.  While on board, Captain Delano observed a

horrible sight of suffering slaves (so it seems).  The

conditions these slaves had to endure were terrible. 

The ship was lacking of water and supply and had a

scarcity of food.  Melville emphasizes the poor and

unlivable conditions that slaves were issued during

their transportation.  It is due to such conditions

that Melville believes should be evidence to stop the

immoral slave trade.  Captain Delano became somewhat

angry of who could captain such a ship until he

actually met the captain, Captain Benito Cereno.  He

was in a terrible condition and seemed to be sick.  He

was accompanied by a slave servant named Babo, who was

the slave mastermind behind the revolt on the ship. 

At this point, however this was a situation unknown to

Delano. 

               Here Melville created the sense of curiosity and

wonderment in the mind of Captain Delano.  He began to

question Captain Benito on the first of many occasions

as to what actually occurred on the ship.  This was an

example of the repetition used by Melville.  Benito

described the ship as being blown off course towards

Lima by strong winds (from Buenos Aires).  Before he

could finish he would break out in a series of coughs.

 This was very suspicious and noted by Delano,

although this and other incidents (anytime Delano

would question sailors or Benito, Babo would find a

way to interfere or interrupt the discussion.)  Delano

would assume it was nothing, Melville decided on doing

this because it showed the slaves intelligence and

manipulation of stories which managed to fool a ship

owner. 

               This was all apart of Babo’s master plan.  Babo

maintained a secret identity as a slave servant to

Benito when in fact he and his fellow slaves were in

control of the ship after a successful slave

rebellion.  The rebellion was bound to occur and did

occur because they wanted to end the harsh treatment

of slaves in this way and they wanted to stop this

continuance of the slave trade.  Babo and his fellow

slaves such as Atufal took it upon themselves to

change their fate.  Babo created the entire story of

what happened to the ship for Benito to tell Delano in

hopes of lacking control of his ship.  This is an

example used by Melville to show what would happen if

slaves were educated and what they could theoretically

do.  This whole thing was not discovered by Delano

until the very last moment when Benito jumped onto

Delano’s ship and Babo followed with a blade but was

held back by Delano’s men.  Soon after the canvas was

dropped and it revealed the skeleton of the slaves’

master and owner Alexandro Arando which underneath

stated follow your leader.  This was done in order to

instill fear in the slave holding ships.  Such a

masterful plan created by the slaves raises the

question of how why Melville chooses to use slaves as

the masterminds of the situation.  It may be due to

Melville’s personal views and beliefs of slavery. 

These accounts clearly show Melville’s position

against slavery through means of poor conditions.  The

plan by Babo also demonstrates Melville’s belief of

the inevitable situation with slavery.  He believes

that with the continuance of the slave trade will come

violent slave rebellions and other forms of slave

uprisings.  It is instances and similarities like this

which have shaped American’s laws of trade and

commerce with compromises such as the Compromise of

1850, which discontinued the importation of slaves.  

Modern TImes Call for Modern Methods of Economy

By: Justin Mahmud

America’s Federal Reserve is the organization
intended to make sure inflation does not become a
problem. Inflation is the general rise in prices
brought about to the increase in the ratio of currency
and credit to the goods available. The Federal
Reserve chairman Ben S. Bernanke believes that is a
problem for business owners to increase their prices
when more money is put into circulation. Mr. Bernanke
believes the recent setting prices presents,
“substantial uncertainties,” which can bring a large
amount of inflation. He also believes the one factor
the Federal Reserve should watch is labor costs.
Although they can not regulate labor costs, they do
have the power to increase or decrease interest rates
and even if economic growth is expected inflation
remained “uncomfortably high.” The Federal Reserve is
approaching inflation in the wrong way and should
address it’s direct connection with Laissez Faire
economics.

Adam Smith created the economic transformation of
Laissez Faire. Its’ purpose was to separate
government authority and regulation from small
businesses and how they are run. Although Laissez
Faire proved successful at giving the people more
power and taking some away from the government during
Smith’s day and age, this policy has not maintained
its’ effectiveness today. But who is to say that
Laissez Faire cannot be modified to fit the time. A
major issue throughout the history of America was
poverty. A simple solution would be to put more money
in circulation (can be done by increasing wages or
“labor costs” as Bernanke refers to as). The problem
with this is that private businesses always increase
prices when more money is in circulation. This is the
true problem that should be addressed because the only
thing that can possibly change this would be the
government, but they can not change the pricing of
business owners because Laissez Faire restricts their
involvement with public businesses. Laissez Faire may
have been a powerful economic transformation at the
time of Adam Smith, but it should be altered to fit
the needs of today’s people and address the issue of
inflation and poverty. By altering, measuring giving
the government some control in the regulations of
prices.