Under Control

Overshadowing the Negative: The American Industrial Revolution

By: Patrick Murphy

Industrialization changed the face of America when it first made it’s impression in the 19^th century, namely the 1850s and later. The Industrial Revolution had already swept across Europe and then made it across the Atlantic to the United States. Industrialization had many long reaching effects on the United States, including the economic difference between the Northern and Southern states, one of the causes of the Civil War. The advent of factories and mass production kicked the Northern states into high gear, but also led to bad relations with the South, where the economy was based solely on agriculture. Industrialization also linked the states together with railroads, allowed goods to be made quicker and sold at a more rapid pace through manufacturing, and improved the economy of the nation. The beneficial effects of industrialization have longer lasting and more important impacts than the disadvantageous effects.

The period of American industrialization served as a mark of independence for the young nation. By being able to produce its own goods, America no longer had to rely on foreign nations to acquire manufactured materials. Andrew Carnegie was an entrepreneur who used the new business practices to improve America’s railroads without the help of England. Instead of importing the steel, Carnegie bought the mines that produced it. He had direct access to the resources he needed, so the government did not have to rely on a European nation. In his memoirs, Thomas Jefferson wrote “He, therefore, who is now against domestic manufacture must be for reducing us either to dependence on that foreign nation, or to be clothed in skins and to live like wild beasts in dens and caverns”.[i] Jefferson also hints on the advancement in society that industrialization brings. Once America is heavily manufacturing goods, they will be above the pack of countries with agricultural-based economies. This idea of American superiority began to rise in the works of Phillip Schaff[ii] and James Fenimore Cooper,[iii] and it started with industrialization. This began another social revolution in the United States.

Mechanization also allowed the states to be connected as they never had before: through railroads. An intricate railroad system was constructed between 1820 and 1850. The effects of this network touched upon economical and social factors. The connection between the industrial North and the agricultural South helped trade between business owners and plantation owners, and the connection allowed the states to feel more united with their neighbors and beyond. In a report to Congress, the economic effects of railroads were described in detail.[iv] This report analyzed the cost of railroads, as well as how shipping costs are calculated. The report tracks the cost of wheat transportation, which was $22.27 per ton. It also recorded the cost of land needed to build the railroads on. This report marked the beginning of inter-state shipping costs. The railroad network was a huge step in American progress, and was one of the more influential aspects of industrialization in the United States.

The economy is what was most affected by industrialization, more so in the North than the South. In the North, factories were the main source of jobs and economical growth. People worked at machines that sped up the process of making good. Instead of products being hand made, they were now mass-produced in factories. In his book Recent Economic Changes and their Effect on the Production and Distribution of Wealth and the Well-Being of Society, David Wells wrote “Machinery is now recognized as essential to cheap production. Nobody can produce effectively and economically without it, and what was formerly known as domestic manufacture is now almost obsolete.” This statement summed up the idea the every factory owner had in his head at the time. Machines were the open door to success in the industrialized economy. Wells also writes on the subject of employment in these factories. Later on in his book, he writes “The whole number of employees in the cotton mills of the United States, according to the census of 1880, was 172,544; of this number, 59,685 were men and 112,859 women and children. In Massachusetts, out of 61,246 employees in the cotton mills, 22,180 are males; 31,496, women; and 7,570, children.” Factories created a shocking amount of jobs in American, allowing people to buy houses and consume because of a regular salary. The factories needed all the workers they could get to ship more products out. This mass-production fueled the economy because it allowed more to be sold and traded internationally. Although the quality of these products went down, the quaintly skyrocketed. That did not seem to matter, as profit was the highest of priorities.

Industrialization was all about success and profit. The workers in the factories suffered from long hours, safety hazards, and low wages. Writer Carroll D. Wright studied the effects on the mentalities of the individual worker in her writings.[v] This kind of neglect of the individual provoked the drastic decrease in product quality, as well an increase in workers discontent.[vi] The safety hazards cost many workers their limbs, and on some occasions, their lives. Records prove that thousands of workers died in the factories, more so than in Britain. Miners also died by the thousands. In a British study, researchers found that over five thousand American miners died between the years of 1890 and 1894, while just over one thousand died in Britain. The machines were economical, but they were also enormously unsafe. The increasingly low wages also forced a decline in motivation for the individual to do a good job on his or her part. The work was hard and sometimes immoral, but it was needed. Without industrialization, employment and crime would have increased tenfold. Although industrialization had negative effects on individual men, women, and children, the nation as a whole benefited.

Industry shaped the way the United States would function economically as well as socially and politically. It was a new world in America, and it effected each individual in any way, from the low level worker to the factory owner, to the soldier fighting for the North or South over differences that could not be solved any other way. America underwent an immense change in the 19^th century, more than any other it endured since its birth in 1776. This time period changed America in a way that had never been experienced before. Both good and bad, the country was molded into what it would later become and be able to achieve. Industrialization cause much pain and poverty, but the nation as a whole benefited deeply.

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[i] Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 1829

[ii] America, A Sketch of the Political, Social, and Religious Character of the United States of North America, 1855

[iii] The American Democrat, 1838

[iv] 32 Congress, 1 Session, Senate Executive Document No. 112, 1852

[v] Journal of Social Science “The Factory System as an Element in Civilization,” 1882

[vi] The New Era, or The Coming Kingdom, Josiah Strong, 1893

Sympathies Unheard: The Narrative of “Benito Cereno”

By: Patrick Murphy

In the 1850s, Herman Melville published his most famous and most recognized. One of these, “Benito Cereno,” is the story of a captain who boards a Spanish Slave ship that is stranded on a lonely coast. Published in 1856, “Benito Cereno” is still regarded as an important piece of literature in which the horrors of the slave trade are explored. Melville’s stirring and sometimes disturbing descriptions of the treatment of slaves show the reader the realism of the trade in a very visceral sense. These descriptions make an attempt to evoke a sense of pathos over the reader, but in this it does not succeed. Although Melville tries to show sympathy towards the slaves, his efforts are overshadowed by his latent superiority.

The story revolves around two European captains, so the portrayal of slaves will not be a positive one. An unnamed narrator describes what the main character, Captain Amasa Delano, sees. He is accompanied throughout his stay on the ship by the captain of said ship and the title character, Benito Cereno. Melville describes the slaves as these men would see them, but one could say that this viewpoint wasn’t necessarily difficult for Melville. When Delano first boards the San Dominick, he observes the mix of black and white faces he sees. Later, as he is guided about by Cereno, he sees two blacks making oakum, a tarred fiber, and the narrator notes that “All six, unlike the generality, had the raw aspect of unsophisticated Africans.” This statement already marks the view that Melville holds for the slaves, although it is suppressed quite well. When Delano is in Cereno’s room, Babo (who appears to be Cereno’s personal servant) is looked upon like an obedient dog. Delano watches Babo, and the narrator notes, “Here Babo, changing his previous grin of mere animal humour into an intelligent smile, not ungratefully eyed his master.” The way the narrator shows Babo is very demeaning, and this effect last through his descriptions of the conditions that the slaves are forced to live in while being shipped across the planet. His affect is somewhat diminished by this portrayal.

The plight of the slaves is described, but even then Melville’s superior tone provokes the reader to feel little or no pity for the victims of the injustice he tries to exploit. While Captain Delano is exploring the San Dominick, he sees the slave’s living quarters, and the narrator describes them in what is one of the more saddening passages of the story. “His attention had been drawn to a slumbering Negress, partly disclosed through the lace-work of some rigging, lying, with youthful limbs carelessly disposed, under the lee of the bulwarks, like a doe in the shade of a woodland rock. Sprawling at her lapped breasts was her wide-awake fawn, stark naked, its black little body half lifted from the deck, crosswise with its dam's; its hands, like two paws, clambering upon her; its mouth and nose ineffectually rooting to get at the mark; and meantime giving a vexatious half-grunt, blending with the composed snore of the Negress.” Melville writes this, but no emotion or opinion is evident, like it was in his descriptions of the oakum cutters and Babo. Here he is merely stating what is there, but not expressing any wrongdoing. The narrator appears to believe that the blacks are no better than the conditions they live in. The narrator can describe the stupidity of the slaves, but he cannot express the pain that the slaves may be feeling? That part does not even cross the mind of the storyteller. Babo is a prominent slave in the story, and the way he is treated is another nail in the coffin of Melville’s attempted sympathies. He is like Cereno’s lapdog, and he is treated no better than one. Babo’s portrayal (as well as name) makes the sympathies of Melville seem forced and unnecessary. It’s as if Melville threw them in to avoid looking heartless in the eyes of his readers.

Although a well-written book, the emotion Melville tries to evoke in “Benito Cereno” is a farce. A writer cannot expect to both sympathize and mock a character in his story, especially when trying to get across a serious point. In this case, the moral issue of slavery is brought up, and with it, a broad look at what other industries are doing. The story provokes the reader to think, but at the same time, it cannot be taken seriously. Herman Melville’s attempt at compassion is broken by his arrogant approach.

No End In Sight

By: Patrick Murphy

The United States is in a financial hole, a hole that will take a very long time to climb out of. With it’s constant spending, the government is doing very little to decrease one of the largest debts that the country has seen since its inception. With the billions and billions of dollars heaping up, America is clueless. The politicians do nothing to stop the increase, and the citizens consume more than they need without a second thought. The government’s poor job of handling the situation allows the debt to build up without restriction.

As of November, the National Debt stands at $64.3 billion, which is a decline from the record high of $69 billion. This drop shows some signs of improvement, but even with this decrease, the debt is still increasing at a rate of $781.6 billion a year. This “improvement” is only temporary.

Even more recently, the value of the dollar was surpassed by the Euro, which hit $1.30 as of November twenty fifth. This raises even more concern. Not only does this incredible debt cripple the American economy, but it also allows the economies of other rival nations to expand and become far more stable than our own. This may be the death knell of the economic power of the U.S., unless the government can do something about it. The Bush Administration is downplaying the crisis that is on hand, and covering up the effect that this financial abyss will have on the country as a whole. The government that should be handling this crisis does nothing but keep citizens ignorant of what is happening around them.

The war in Iraq is not helping matters in the least. Every day, the nation’s budget spends billions on a war that has met little success over the past three years. This wasted money puts a solution further and further out of reach. The Bush Administration needs to stop playing peacemaker and focus on the needs of their own country instead of those halfway around the world. By ending the unjust involvement of America in Iraq and using that money to decrease the public debt, there can be an even bigger improvement that the miniscule one that the government is playing off as something of great importance. The corporations will have to take a backseat on Bush’s priorities list and decrease the import of foreign goods while increasing the exports of American-made goods. This way, the debt will be in check and a light can be seen at the end of this long, long tunnel.

How Successful Were Economic Transformations In America?

By: Justin Mahmud

 Throughout the course of history, nations have

competed with one another in the race for economic

supremacy.  Economy is the system in which a nation or

country handles currency and international affairs

involving goods or money, however systems of economy

have not always been as developed and advanced as they

are today. ( Forms of economic transformations have

taken place first).  Such transformations are

necessary in nations who are perceived as powerhouses

in the wild in terms of economy.  A perfect example of

this is our very own nation, the United States.  The

United States has had its’ share of economic

transformations which have helped boost its economic

position amongst other nations.  There have been three

key transformations in America which include trade

(specifically trade for slaves), industrialization and

laissez faire capitalism. All of these have

contributed to the undisputed success of the American

economy. America’s utilization of these economic

transformations have laid the most successful

foundation for nations to follow.

               One of the most controversial but successful economic

transformation in America was the development of the

slave trade involving America with other nations.  The

first real major slave trade was the transatlantic and

triangle trade.  This transatlantic slave trade,

lasting from 1450 to around 1850,   held an incredible

effect on nations such as America, Europe and Africa. 

Trade has always held significant economic meaning to

nations because of the increase of trade brings goods

and money but no trade held more significance to

American economy as the transatlantic slave trade

(triangle trade) did.  This trade involved

manufactured goods from industry, raw materials

(including sugar, cotton, tobacco), and most

importantly, slaves.  Slavery held the key to tone of

the most significant economic transformations.  In

order to acquire these slaves, America was dependent

upon Europe because European traders expand

manufactured goods to Africa in exchange for slaves in

which they traded to America for some of its’ raw

materials.   The amounts of slaves being transported

is staggering(during 1440-1640); nations such as

Portugal and Britain are accountable for having

shipping out over seven million slaves throughout the

transatlantic slave trade.  The region in which these

slaves were being transported from Africa into America

was known as the middle passage.  The slave trade’s

economic impact on America came mostly in the south. 

Southern United States was based on agriculture which

includes farm work which requires workers to proved

labor.  Slavery was the answer to this labor and it

was free. With the addition of slaves there would be a

competition of economic growth within the nation

between the north and the south. There will also be

the addition of entrepreneur-like ideas such as the

profits to cheap or free labor ratio.This allowed

southern United States to prosper economically.  With

the progress of agriculture came economic growth with

more goods for trade and there was an increase of

production (food).  With the constant importation of

slaves into America provided a constant supply of free

labor workers.  It wasn’t until 1807 when Britain

banned the slave trade; 1865 when the United States

abolished slavery and until 1888 when Brazil outlawed

slave trade across the entire American continent that

the slave trade finally died out.  

               Another key economic transformation that took place

in America was industrialization.  The key for

industrialization to become a success in America was

to understand its’ connection to the country’s already

strong agricultural system.  The utilization of

industry for agriculture proved to be successful.  

According to Thomas Weiss, “United States labor force

estimates and economic growth,” had shown that there

was a significant increase in the number of farm

laborers throughout New England, Massachusetts,

Connecticut, Mid-Atlantic, New York, Pennsylvania and

east which was mainly due to the opening of new

industries such as shoe industries and cotton

textiles.  Industrialization was also successful

because although these were many areas for good

farming and agriculture, it does not mean that

farmland is available everywhere.  So in the areas in

which there was no farmland, cotton textiles were

developed; it was later spread to areas which were

prosperous in agriculture.  Cotton textiles involved

the production of cotton (clothing) through

productions of spinning machines which was also a form

of industry.  Clothing was obviously something that

directly brought economic growth through sales and

trade.  This industry was successful because the idea

of profit became key due to the cost of production was

better than their selling price.  The sectionalism of

America had also helped the growth of industry because

the east was so dominant with industry in caused areas

such as the Midwest to try to compete with in turn

creates more industry which equals economic growth. 

This ,however, was not possible until 1840-1860 when

transportation and technology developed which lowered

distribution costs.  Industrialization was a key

economic transformation because it is able to provide

new jobs for our society and allows the United States

to trade with other nations. 

               Another significant economic transformation was the

development of the laissez faire capitalism created by

Adam Smith.  It held strong economic importance, as

evidence it is still the system in place and in use

today.  Laissez Faire was first introduced because

America and other nations were trying to take power

away from controlling rulers or overly powered

governments.  Laissez Faire is a system in which

governments can have no say or involvement with

regulations of private or independent businesses. 

This was key to economic growth because now business

owners were able to manage their businesses in their

own way, one example is they would no longer have to

accept government issued prices, they can now set

prices as they see fit. (more economic freedom).  Some

may argue that this economic equality has potential

for success but also has the same potential for

failure.  Although this may have some truth, Laissez

Faire was a necessary economic transformation for our

economy and democracy. It was necessary because

America has called itself the land of the free while

the free while they emulate the economic systems of

other nations, this form of capitalism will give

America a trait of its own identity.

               Economic transformations such as Laissez Faire

capitalism, industrialization, and slave trade have

all shaped our economy to this date.  Its’ success in

undisputed; the United States has become an economical

powerhouse and a center of trade.  It has laid a path

which is followed and imitated by many other nations. 

Laissez Faire has helped us maintain a balance between

government power and economic power of the individual.

 The slave trade has helped progress economic

development in south United States.  The

industrialization era had helped spread industry to

all ports of the United States (not only the north) to

an industrial power capable of trading with a variety

of manufactured goods.  This all shows the strength as

well as the success of the economic transformations in

the United States. 

(end notes)

   Donald R. Wright , “Journal of American Ethnic

History,” Volume 20, Issue 1 , Fall 2000

  Paul E. Lovejoy, “Transformations in Slavery,”

Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN

  Thomas Weiss, “US Labor Force Estimates and Economic

Growth,”1800-1860, “ American Economic

Growth and Standards of living Before the Civil War,

edited by Robert E.Gallagan and John Joseph Wallis

(Chicago IL University of Chicago Press,1992”

Slaves: Masterminds or Hopeless Captives

By: Justin Mahmud

 Herman Melville’s Benito Cereno is a tale which

illustrates the story of one group of slaves who

wanted to change their fates.  The path of these

slaves throughout history was clear.  Slaves on board

any type of a ship usually, no always, meant that they

were being shipped from one nation to another nation. 

They were treated no better than merchandise or goods.

 Slaves were considered to be of no equivalence to the

white man which was supposed to justify their

treatment.  This however was not the case in Benito

Cereno because the slaves were very intelligent and

were led by Babo, who may be the most intelligent

character in the whole story.  This idea demonstrates

Herman Melville’s belief of the possibilities of what

may have occurred if slaves were educated on any

level.  This transportation of slaves changed the way

America handled commerce and trade of slaves

completely. 

               Herman Melville chooses Captain Amasa Delano as the

narrator and voice throughout the story.  Captain

Delano was captain of the Bachelor’s Delight whaling

ship in 1799 of Massachusetts.  He and his crew were

traveling along the coast of Chile.  This is where he

first sights the “stranger” ship which was San

Dominick.  It was a ship believed to belong to a

Spanish merchantman.  The Spanish were a group who

were heavily involved in slave trade.  Captain Delano

had originally believed this was a ship of distress

and set out to see if it was in need of help.  Once

there, he saw that it held Negro slaves which were

going to be traded, most likely to be part of the

transatlantic slave trade.

               While on board the San Dominick, Captain Delano

discovers a line under the canvas which stated “sequid

vuestro jefe,” which meant follow your leader.  This

line held a very symbolic meaning at the end of the

story.  While on board, Captain Delano observed a

horrible sight of suffering slaves (so it seems).  The

conditions these slaves had to endure were terrible. 

The ship was lacking of water and supply and had a

scarcity of food.  Melville emphasizes the poor and

unlivable conditions that slaves were issued during

their transportation.  It is due to such conditions

that Melville believes should be evidence to stop the

immoral slave trade.  Captain Delano became somewhat

angry of who could captain such a ship until he

actually met the captain, Captain Benito Cereno.  He

was in a terrible condition and seemed to be sick.  He

was accompanied by a slave servant named Babo, who was

the slave mastermind behind the revolt on the ship. 

At this point, however this was a situation unknown to

Delano. 

               Here Melville created the sense of curiosity and

wonderment in the mind of Captain Delano.  He began to

question Captain Benito on the first of many occasions

as to what actually occurred on the ship.  This was an

example of the repetition used by Melville.  Benito

described the ship as being blown off course towards

Lima by strong winds (from Buenos Aires).  Before he

could finish he would break out in a series of coughs.

 This was very suspicious and noted by Delano,

although this and other incidents (anytime Delano

would question sailors or Benito, Babo would find a

way to interfere or interrupt the discussion.)  Delano

would assume it was nothing, Melville decided on doing

this because it showed the slaves intelligence and

manipulation of stories which managed to fool a ship

owner. 

               This was all apart of Babo’s master plan.  Babo

maintained a secret identity as a slave servant to

Benito when in fact he and his fellow slaves were in

control of the ship after a successful slave

rebellion.  The rebellion was bound to occur and did

occur because they wanted to end the harsh treatment

of slaves in this way and they wanted to stop this

continuance of the slave trade.  Babo and his fellow

slaves such as Atufal took it upon themselves to

change their fate.  Babo created the entire story of

what happened to the ship for Benito to tell Delano in

hopes of lacking control of his ship.  This is an

example used by Melville to show what would happen if

slaves were educated and what they could theoretically

do.  This whole thing was not discovered by Delano

until the very last moment when Benito jumped onto

Delano’s ship and Babo followed with a blade but was

held back by Delano’s men.  Soon after the canvas was

dropped and it revealed the skeleton of the slaves’

master and owner Alexandro Arando which underneath

stated follow your leader.  This was done in order to

instill fear in the slave holding ships.  Such a

masterful plan created by the slaves raises the

question of how why Melville chooses to use slaves as

the masterminds of the situation.  It may be due to

Melville’s personal views and beliefs of slavery. 

These accounts clearly show Melville’s position

against slavery through means of poor conditions.  The

plan by Babo also demonstrates Melville’s belief of

the inevitable situation with slavery.  He believes

that with the continuance of the slave trade will come

violent slave rebellions and other forms of slave

uprisings.  It is instances and similarities like this

which have shaped American’s laws of trade and

commerce with compromises such as the Compromise of

1850, which discontinued the importation of slaves.  

Modern TImes Call for Modern Methods of Economy

By: Justin Mahmud

America’s Federal Reserve is the organization
intended to make sure inflation does not become a
problem. Inflation is the general rise in prices
brought about to the increase in the ratio of currency
and credit to the goods available. The Federal
Reserve chairman Ben S. Bernanke believes that is a
problem for business owners to increase their prices
when more money is put into circulation. Mr. Bernanke
believes the recent setting prices presents,
“substantial uncertainties,” which can bring a large
amount of inflation. He also believes the one factor
the Federal Reserve should watch is labor costs.
Although they can not regulate labor costs, they do
have the power to increase or decrease interest rates
and even if economic growth is expected inflation
remained “uncomfortably high.” The Federal Reserve is
approaching inflation in the wrong way and should
address it’s direct connection with Laissez Faire
economics.

Adam Smith created the economic transformation of
Laissez Faire. Its’ purpose was to separate
government authority and regulation from small
businesses and how they are run. Although Laissez
Faire proved successful at giving the people more
power and taking some away from the government during
Smith’s day and age, this policy has not maintained
its’ effectiveness today. But who is to say that
Laissez Faire cannot be modified to fit the time. A
major issue throughout the history of America was
poverty. A simple solution would be to put more money
in circulation (can be done by increasing wages or
“labor costs” as Bernanke refers to as). The problem
with this is that private businesses always increase
prices when more money is in circulation. This is the
true problem that should be addressed because the only
thing that can possibly change this would be the
government, but they can not change the pricing of
business owners because Laissez Faire restricts their
involvement with public businesses. Laissez Faire may
have been a powerful economic transformation at the
time of Adam Smith, but it should be altered to fit
the needs of today’s people and address the issue of
inflation and poverty. By altering, measuring giving
the government some control in the regulations of
prices.

A Slave Cannot Buy A House

By Jackie Tse

Slavery was one of the main focuses of American life in the 19th century. Not only was it the key factor to southern economy in the United States, but it was long disputed and questioned to being unconstitutional, violating human rights. Under the office of Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) the United States was no longer a whole nation but, divided into a southern division; the Confederates and a northern division; the Union. Their economic differences was one major factor in the South’s motivation to separate. The South believed in a well developing economy using slaves for free labor, considering how the South’s economy was agricultural-based. Having slavery as the essence of Southern economy in the U.S during the 19th century, the south would have surely been financially challenged without slavery.

Slavery allowed maximum profiting in the South. Slavery was also known as cheap labor in the South. Negroes were brought in from Africa and sold as items rather than people across the Atlantic Ocean and were not given citizenship into any part of the United States. Southern merchants continued to make large profits from selling slaves to corporate and plantation owners of the 19th century even though in the mid-19th century, slavery was long forgotten in the North of the United States. By using slaves for cheap labor, slave owners were able to maximize their profits without moving a finger. Workers who were hired for low wages or bought from slave traders were considered cheap labor. They were paid very little, some were paid with food and shelter, to work excessive number of hours in harsh working conditions. Working conditions for slaves were of lowest priority for slave owners. Most slaves were paid with shelter, food and if they were lucky, clothes. Southern economy was on a steady pace of growth because labor was cheap due to the large amount of slaves in the South. Little was spent for their health and work. When slavery was introduced in the 17th century slaves were bought by hundreds. Without the mass selling slaves in the 17th century, the South would not have been taking advantage and indulging on the advantages of cheap labor.

Slavery limited the opportunity for employment for American citizens in the South during the 19th century. Plantation and corporate owners in the South did not have any needs for hiring workers for reasonable wages. Only slaves were necessary for a plantation to function efficiently. Slaves were bought without hesitation, aside from examining each one for strong physical characteristics. Southern citizens who were not plantation or corporate owners had no choice, but to buy their own slaves and start their own plantations, living a life of crops and herding animals. The limited number of employment in plantations contributed to the increase in the number of southern plantations. Unemployment also increased in the U.S do to large imports of slaves and immigrants during the 19th century. This shifted the source of a functional economy. Due to slavery, southern citizens were no longer to be found on plantations as employees.

Slavery became a new common interest of ownership in the South. Slaves were beaten, raped and sometimes starved as harsh punishment. Slaves from Africa had no sense of direction or any knowledge of American lifestyle therefore their only choice was to obey their masters in exchange for food and shelter. Everyone owned slaves because they were efficient workers, required little space to live in and the number of slaves was practically limitless. Slaves were used as tools, ordered to herd animals, fix houses, clean clothes and other chores that were far worse to be dealt with. Everyone in the South had a slave and if not one, more than enough to double the population of the South. The life of a slave was based very few and simple concepts. They were to swear to obey without question and succeed without failure. If they could not fulfill such tasks ordered by their masters, they would be treated like a hand tool; thrown away like useless tools.

Slavery became central pillar of support of southern economy in the United States during the 19th century. The South did not industrialize because their economy had depended on the cheap labor of slaves for decades. Even though the North was exposed to slavery for approximately the same amount of time, the North and the South had different lifestyles, depending on individuals who spoke their minds. In southern minds, increasing the number of slaves would result in the increasing of development efficiency in the economy. Machinery was looked down upon in the South, supporting the long time use of slaves.

Without slavery, the tension between the North and the South of the United States would not have been as severe as separating from a whole nation as an alternative of the South. The Union of the North gave way to a new and strong economy of industrialization while the Confederates of the South conserved their old ways of slavery and using cheap labor. Slavery impacted the economy of the South by maximizing southern profits, limiting employment, serving as a common tool and by becoming the strongest pillar in the economic structure of the South. The North viewed slavery as unconstitutional while the South viewed slavery as a prevailing source of boosting the economy.

Americans Take Gambling To Heart

By Jackie Tse

The Luck of Roaring Camp and The Outcasts of Poker Flat, by Francis Bret Harte, portrayed the simple lives of Westerners in North America during the 1800’s. The Luck of Roaring Camp is about allowing a new member, a new born, to become part of a classless society in the early 1800‘s. The Outcasts of Poker Flat is about the survival of a few “gamblers” in a treacherous blizzard, trapped inside a hut in the mid-1800’s. In the 1800’s, many gold rushes took place in the U.S, especially in the California region. Where there’s gold, there’s money and people who are willing to give up their reputation to just have a chance to have all of the money to themselves. Whether it be legally or illegally, having more money than everyone else was the main objective of life. Gambling was spoken of in the periods of the gold rushes in California, hence it changed the lives of Westerners in the U.S in the 1800’s.

A child’s life and a man’s sanity were the results of the changes in Roaring Camp. The child was taken care of and named “The Luck” (p. 5 para. 16) by the customers in Roaring Camp. Roaring Camp was a place for Westerners to have fun, drink beer and gamble with cards every so often. A man named Kentucky had taken the child into his own custody and wanted to raise him as he pleased, but as the child grew towards being a month old, he saw challenges for the child. Oakhurst, one of the “gamblers” claimed that the child “had brought ‘the luck’ to Roaring Camp” (p.4 para. 15). Aside from this claim to being the main cause for the naming of the child, the child was only kept alive for its superstitious use. “It was proposed to build a hotel in the following spring, and to invite one or two decent families to reside there for the sake of ‘The Luck‘,” (p. 6 para. 19) The influence of Hotels were to direct and extreme for the child, believed Kentucky. The need for further economic improvement and land development brought out the instincts of a man’s sanity. Kentucky took the child away from the others and decide to die with the child, believing that the child should never be used for the better of money once again. In a way, gambling and the continuation of gambling in the 1800’s allowed the world to flourish, but also allowed a man to decide the fate of two lives. Kentucky betrayed his ways of living the life of a gambler in order to “save” another life.

The devilish intentions of a poor gambler and the advice of a wise care taker collided. In the Outcasts of Poker Flats lives a soul, as a whole, of torment that is waiting to become the very source of its end. Tommy is a poor gambler in Poker Flats and has considered himself as one of the usual gamblers in Poker Flats but Oakhursts says otherwise. One major factor in gambling is the amount of luck a person has or is willing to accept according to his own free will. Oakhursts warned Tommy throughout the entire story to save him from the horrors of gambling, but in reality he should have saved himself because he was on his way to a “streak of bad luck” (p. 7 para. 33). Knowing what to do with his money was Oakhurst’s only way of surviving Poker Flats, but everything changed when he and Tommy were stranded beneath a giant blizzard. The only things the two were able to talk about were topics concerning luck, that had most likely to have come from gambling practically everyday. Oakhurst was drowned in his own pure self-reliance on the thought of “luck”. He wasn’t thinking for himself, but for the good of superstitious luck. At the cost of two lives, gambling has taken its toll and flourished for the better of the economy.

During the 1800’s, gambling was large asset of life in the West of the U.S. Gold was rumored to appear about the mountains and sudden “boom towns” occurred, benefiting primarily from the success of commerce in bars, tailor shops, and other westernized 19th century stores. Even though gambling was only a portion of the contributions to “boom towns”, it became an activity throughout the day for Westerners.

Can I Buy That Ten Dollar Bill With This One Dollar Bill?

by Jackie Tse

Congress has made many reasonable and respectable decisions in the past, shaping the American economy as it is today. Decisions such as passing the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 as part of the U.S Constitution allowed a better balance of power in the relationship between the government and the people who are ruled by the government. (1)

Unfortunately today there is a financial conflict within the U.S, which in reality impacts the entire world. The world’s reserve money, the dollar, is losing its value. The degradation was said to be inevitable. Times have changed and wars have passed. The degrading or devaluation of the dollar has caused a dramatic increase of unemployment within the U.S over the past decades, hence a change in the American economy for the worse.

Who is to blame? Congress realizes the long term effects of printing more currency yet, no immediate action is taken by congressmen. Since the Bush Campaign reigned over U.S, 1.5 million people have become unemployed within the U.S. (2) Bush continued devaluating the dollar after he took office as President in 2001. Since then, the dollar has fallen 35% in comparison to the Euro and 24% in comparison to the Yen. (3) Congress in general is to blame for the disappearing value of the dollar, but specifically, the Federal policy of allowing local banks to print money for maintaining corporate values has posed a threat to the American economy for decades.

The reason for the necessity of printing more money is to replace lost bills or to repay foreign debts with haste. On a larger scale, printing more money will manipulate the general public that they’re pampered by the government, fixing the mistakes of taking advantage of paper currency. The general public does not realize that destroying, writing on, crumbling a dollar bill harms the economy. In fact the general public of U.S should mind how they use their money. Many U.S citizens treat the dollar bills they have as note taking material. This contributes to the slow yet harmful effects of erosion. Congress’s share of help should be based on creating a stable policy of restricting dollar printing. For example, the policy should state the time period of when currency can be printed and by whom.

The dollar is disappearing and it’s unfortunate how little the general public know of this affair.

#1 The 16th Amendment gave Congress the power to tax individuals’ incomes without regard to the national census. Cornell Law School. The Unite States Constitution http://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.amendmentxvi.html
#2 Christy Harvey. “The American Progress Action Fund”. The Progress Report. 2005
http://www.americanprogressaction.org/site/pp.asp?c=klLWJcP7H&b=308856
#3 “The Economist”. The Disappearing Dollar. 2006.

19 Century Inventions That Left The U.S. In Awe

By: Andrés Oropeza

Inventions of the 19^th century have helped the United States progress and become the hegemonic power that it is today. Of course, the nation first started out as a seed, taking in as much as it could to sprout and began to flourish. The United States cannot advance politically, socially, and especially economically without the advancement in the area of science. It is through the inventions of science that pave the way to a prosperous and glorious future. Some of the inventions that greatly impacted the U.S. include the steamboat, the Erie Canal, the armored steamships involved in the Battle of the Ironclads, and the pneumatic subway. Every new invention symbolizes the perseverance of the United States. During the 19^th century, the United States could not have successfully achieved the economic growth that it has without having been introduced to new inventions.

The steamboat helped the United States’ economy reach incredible heights. John Fitch first introduced the steamboat to the United States in 1787 when he traveled on a forty-five foot steamboat on the Delaware River. With the invention of the steamboat, the boating trade along the waterways between the Eastern states became a profitable commercial enterprise.[i] Money was made because it was a mode of public transportation that many people took advantage of and goods were able to get across as well. Robert Fulton, along with his partner Robert Livingstone, had decided to take advantage of this new opportunity and they built their very own steamboat, the Clermont. In 1807, Fulton and Livingstone successfully journeyed up and down the Hudson River, providing rides to passengers on each trip. The steamboat had improved economy by providing not only a new way of transportation but also a new means of obtaining a profit that helped better the economy.

The Erie Canal was another invention that greatly improved the United States economy. Building a single canal to connect the Hudson River to Lake Erie at first seemed like a daunting task. However, De Witt Clinton never gave up in fighting for what he believed would be a major turning point for his state economically. In 1817, a canal bill was passed guaranteeing funding for the completion of the canal. It had taken eight years to complete the 363 miles of inland waterway between Albany and Buffalo, New York, destined to become one of the most important routes to the west.[ii] A shorter route was made through which people and goods could get from one point to another in a shorter period of time. The Erie Canal was able to improve the New York state’s economy and helped it rival the economy of other states in the United States.

The steamboat brought many new possibilities in improving the economy of the United States as it was used for various purposes. The steamboat was not only used only to ferry people and valuable commodities but also as an impressive destructive force during the Civil War. In 1862, the Confederates boasted their strength by sending into the war the U.S.S. Merrimac. Merrimac devastated the U.S. blockading squadron by sinking the Cumberland and the Congress. However, the U.S.S. Monitor, the iron brute on the Union side, arrived on time to challenge the U.S.S. Merrimac. In the end, neither could overcome the other and the battle between the two titans ended in a draw. This battle helped the metal industries prosper since it was evident to see how crucial it was to outfit steamships with coats of metal. The steamboat drastically shortened travel times and enabled greater numbers of people and goods to move longer distances.[iii] So, troops were able to receive help at a faster time and military weapons and supplies could also be brought from one place to another at a faster time. In the northern part of the United States, the industries grew because of the need for supplies for war from both the Union and the Confederacy, which helped economy grow.

The invention of the pneumatic subway had not made such a significant impact, however, its revolutionary idea helped set up economic growth through public transportation. Alfred Ely Beach was a successful businessman who wanted to create public transportation so that the New York streets would be less congested. Unfortunately, Boss Tweed would not agree with Alfred’s idea of creating a subway, so instead, Alfred told him he was building tubes through which to send mail. After receiving permission, he proceeded with his original plan and worked on it during the night. Finally, in 1870, the first subway opened, stretching from Warren to Cedar street. It turned out to be a big hit and many passengers climbed on board. With this invention a tradesman ten miles away on the other side of a town may be communicated with, and goods obtained from him by a housekeeper, as quickly and with as little personal inconvenience as now if he were in the next block.[iv] This meant that people were able to travel and send things so much faster. However, before the pneumatic subway could gain much success, it was forgotten because of the financial panic of 1873. Even though the pneumatic subway did not enjoy much success, it set the stage for future subways. It also showed how effective public transportation could be in decongesting streets and gaining a profit and improving the economy.

The inventions of the 19^th century had opened many roads and offered many new possibilities. There seemed to be no limit to what a person could do with the many new inventions. This made improving the U.S. economy a simple task while accomplishing a person’s own endeavors. It seems impossible to imagine life without the inventions that greatly changed everyday life. The U.S. economy could not be prosperous as it is now if it weren’t for these inventions which laid the foundation for future contraptions.

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[i]John Marshall, “Gibbons v. Ogden,” http://america.eb.com/america/article?articleId=385677&query=Steamboat.

[ii]“Songs of the Erie Canal,” http://america.eb.com/america/article?articleId=385662&query=Erie+Canal.

[iii]Heidi Hill, “WHEN RIVERS WERE ROADS,” Cobblestone 27, no. 8 (2006) MasterFILE Select, EBSCOhost, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mfh&AN=23096988&site=ehost-live.

[iv]Frederick Law Olmsted, “The Unplanned Growth of Cities,” http://america.eb.com/america/article?article=386314&query=Pneumatic+Railroad.

Awful Luck To Hopeful Individuals in Bret Harte's "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" and "The Luck of Roaring Camp"

By: Andrés Oropeza

The Gold Rush of 1848 in the United States offered not only many new opportunities but also hopes and dreams to those who had no other means of making a living. Thousands of people traveled from both near and far to California ready to mine any and every place hiding gold. Many, however, had no idea of the risk they were taking by going to the west, a land without law and a place where men look after themselves or came face to face with the barrel of a gun. This is the kind of setting for the stories, “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” and “The Luck of Roaring Camp” by Francis Bret Harte. Mr. Oakhurst moved from Roaring Camp to Poker Flat, the place that would make him meet his unfortunate fate. Cherokee Sal and her child are other characters from Roaring Camp that only find misfortune. The vagabonds and fugitives forsaken by society all go in search of wealth and prosperity in the Gold Rush, but often fail because of the unlucky hand they are dealt.

Mr. Oakhurst is a very good poker player, however, he strikes nothing but bad luck that leads him to his doom while only trying to survive. The reason he is still around the lawless towns is because he still has not yet struck any gold. He must be trying extremely hard because he has depended on the money that he wins in poker games in order to go on living. However, his luck eventually runs out. The narrator says, “With him life was at best an uncertain game, and he recognized the usual percentage in favor of the dealer.”[i] This shows Mr. Oakhurst finally understands that from after having angered many by taking their money in poker games, he is about to take a turn for the worst. Mr. Oakhurst says, “I’m proud to live in the service of the Lord, and I’m bound to die in His army.”[ii] This means that Mr. Oakhurst kept his religion close to him and lived honestly, hardly turning to sins for his own selfish desires. However, prayers were not enough to keep him alive; Mr. Oakhurst dies because he sacrifices himself in order to give the ladies that were camping with him more time to live by leaving the shelter and not eating any more food. This shows Mr. Oakhurst as being an honest hard working gentleman. However, that was not enough to strike gold. What he needed was luck, like the kind that he had every time he would win a poker game. Since, he did not possess that kind of luck, all that he encountered were hardships and a couple of friends, and finally, his death.

Cherokee Sal is a woman who has tried to turn over a new leaf in order to have a future to look forward to, however, destiny has chosen a more unfortunate plan for her. Cherokee Sal must have been a desperate soul to travel all the way to the Wild West in order to get rich. The narrator says, “But at that time she was the only woman in Roaring Camp, and was just then lying in sore extremity, when she most needed the ministration of her own sex.”[iii] She was the only woman in her town, so no one could help her while she was trying to give birth. The narrator also says, “It was, perhaps part of the expiation of her sin, that at a moment when she most lacked her sex’s intuitive tenderness and care, she met only the half-contemptuous faces of her masculine associates.”[iv] This means, that because she had been working so hard to make a living for herself while she was pregnant, she must have turned into a mean and unhappy person. This caused her to only find her co-workers standing beside her showing sympathy. Cherokee Sal dies when she gives birth and her baby dies as well because the baby did not live in a safe environment where it was around loving parents. So, it did not matter how much effort Cherokee Sal put into working or mining for gold. She was not able to get what she wanted because she was given unimaginable bad luck. She was pregnant at a bad time, working while she was pregnant and died giving birth because no one around her knew anything about giving birth. So, it would seem that someone was out to get her because of all the unfortunate events happening to her.

The Wild West was a dangerous place to live in because of the violence and the struggle needed to get by. Both Mr. Oakley and Cherokee Sal struggled in trying to stay out of trouble and work hard almost everyday. However, that never got either of them anywhere because they were missing something that cannot be gained solely through working hard. They did not have luck to help ease the struggle and finally give them a break. Instead, they both met an unfortunate fate where they both die under painful conditions. So, hard work alone could not save anyone from their problems because without luck, nothing will change and the person will only keep on digging and digging having only hope to get them by.

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[i]Bret Harte, The Outcasts of Poker Flat

[ii]Bret Harte, The Outcasts of Poker Flat

[iii]Bret Harte, The Luck of Roaring Camp

[iv]Bret Harte, The Luck of Roaring Camp

Discrimination In the Workforce

By: Andrés Oropeza

It seems that in these days, people are willing to go to great lengths to come across a large sum of money even though people like Lily Ledbetter know that they are wrong in doing so. Ledbetter is suing Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co. for mistreating her by paying her a small salary because she is a woman.

Lily Ledbetter has been working for Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co. for nineteen years and after all that time she is suing the company for being paid $6,000 a year less than the lowest-paid man in the same job.

Ledbetter’s case, however, may be dropped because of the Civil Rights act of 1964. The Civil Rights Act claims that employees must complain about pay discrimination with in six months or forfeit their claim. Ledbetter’s lawyer, Kevin Russell, says that each smaller paycheck should be treated as a new act of discrimination. But even the Bush Administration and Lawyer Irving Gorenstein argued against her case saying, “it would undo the statute of limitations in pay cases. “[i]

Also, the reason for her being paid less than the lowest paid man in the same job has nothing to do with her being a woman. Goodyear says, “She received periodic raises despite being ranked near the bottom of her group workers.”[ii] So, Ledbetter is not being paid less because she is a woman but because she is not keeping up with the competition in her field of work. And even then, she still receives raises.

Ledbetter has no reason to ask for more money in her unreasonable lawsuit because there is not concrete evidence proving that she is a victim of prejudice. The Supreme Court should deny her anything just as the 11^th Circuit Court of Appeals had because “she is complaining about decisions made by her supervisors long ago, well after the deadline for raising allegations of discrimination.”[iii]

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[i]http://www.wsbtv.com/money/10405443/detail.html

[ii]http://www.wsbtv.com/money/10405443/detail.html

[iii]http://www.wsbtv.com/money/10405443/detail.html

Trade & Commerce Effects on US Economy

By: Luke Sloma

In the nineteenth century the economy of many countries was based on trade and commerce. This was so because international and even local trading of goods and material was very profitable and useful. Not every country had access to the same resources. Different regions had different resources and were useful for cultivating different kinds of crops and plants. This is mainly why trading was overwhelmingly important. United Sates was one of the nations that was big on commerce. US was transformed because of it. It developed and improved transportation methods. Also Laissez-Faire was an issue during the nineteenth century that was going on between the government and industries. Trade and commerce as well affected the international relations of US with other countries. Urbanization that occurred during this time was had a significant impact on society commerce. In the nineteenth century trade and commerce were two crucial parts of the United States economy that helped shape the nation.
In order to trade within the US there was need for transportation by land. There were canals built and some already existing waterways that allowed trading by water. This was not enough. A connection needed to be established between the West and the East. “…to the necessity of another railroad connection with the West”[i] This connection was necessary because the west was industrialized and it had many factories and mills . Things like cotton, natural resources and live stock from east needed to be send to the west to make products. Later the products had to be send out across the country. This was made possible by the development of railroads. Railroads started to develop in the 1860s. “By the 1860s, however, it had become clear that the railroad offered a much superior form of transportation…”[ii]…the development and building railroads was a great business itself. Railroads were much better than waterways. In winter the waterways froze up which was the end of it, but the railroads could have been used all year round. With the new technology which were the railroads cargo could be shipped to any part of the country very efficiently and easily. There were no more problems with trade within the US.
When dealing with economy an important issue comes to mind called Laissez-faire. Laissez-faire means that the economy should be independent. “It means that government, the state, the people in their collective capacity, ought not to interfere in industrial life…”[iii] That’s what mostly the industry owner and other people that worked in the economy wanted. They did not want the government to control them. This also affected trade and commerce. The government wanted to get involved because it thought that the economy was still developing so it needed some help. The economists thought otherwise. They say that there is no real meaning for Laissez-faire and that it is unsafe. “It is difficult to define laissez faire categorically, because it is so absurd that its defenders can never be induced to say precisely what they mean…laissez faire is unsafe in politics and unsound in morals; and that it suggests an inadequate explanation of the relations between the state and the citizens.”[iv] The economists believe that the government just wanted to have some control over economy. The government believed that no person lives for himself and that people have mutual relations. “We do not believe that any man lives for himself alone…”[v]
Urbanization had a tremendous impact on trade and commerce in the nineteenth century. The last half of the nineteenth century faced great increase in population in the cities. “The closing decades of this century are witnessing no more remarkable phenomenon than that shown in the migration of population…”[vi] This was because of the industries and factories that were opening to which people moved to find work. “…the people not actually needed to cultivate the soil are being drawn into the towns, while the productive industries of the towns, together with those identified with them, are being transferred to the largest cities”.[vii] People could barely maintain their farms so they thought that with all the new factories made it would be easier to make money and have a chance of better life. When people moved to cities they faced reality. The cities were polluted, overcrowded and the living conditions were just horrible. They had to work long hours in unsafe conditions and were paid almost nothing. In the factories all kinds of goods and products were made. The assembly line enabled for large quantities of goods to be made very quickly and cheaply. These goods and products were than traded and sold within US and with other countries as well. In conclusion the more people that worked in factories the more goods were made. More workers available allowed for more factories to open up, also there was always someone found to work the machines. Which than gave more goods to trade and sell.
International relations of United States with other countries were greatly affected by trade and commerce. US relations with some countries were good because of the exchange of certain goods. Countries like France and England were greatly dependent on the cotton trade with US, England also was a great customer for US wheat.[viii] Countries in Europe were in good relations with United States because of the goods they needed. European countries as well as US profited from the international trade between each other. This was the reason to remain in peace. Other nations that could benefit from US goods had a different approach. They would seize US merchant ships and steal the goods. The people that did this were called pirates. This was the reason US imposed the Embargo Act of 1807.[ix] The act stopped trade with countries oversees. No exports and imports caused for US to loose money and people at home had to suffer of starvation. This resulted in unfriendly relations and conflicts.
Trade and commerce were two important aspects of US economy in the nineteenth century. Economy was crucial to a country’s development. Trade and commerce improved US transportation methods by developing railroads. The disagreement on Laissez-faire government and economists was debated. International relations of US changed because of trading with European countries. Trade and commerce were positively affected by the Urbanization that occurred at the end of the Nineteenth century. The great development of United States economy in the nineteenth century was by trade and commerce.



[i]Anonymous, “Canals and Railroads”, Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, August 1863.


[ii]Anonymous, “Canals and Railroads”, Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, August 1863.


[iii]Anonymous, “A Practical Program for Economists”, Publications of the American Economic Association, 1885

[iv]Anonymous, “A Practical Program for Economists”, Publications of the American Economic Association, 1885.


[v]Anonymous, “A Practical Program for Economists”, Publications of the American Economic Association, 1885.


[vi]Henry J. Fletcher, “Migration to the Cities”, The Drift of Population to Cities: Remedies, 1895.

[vii]Henry J. Fletcher, “Migration to the Cities”, The Drift of Population to Cities: Remedies, 1895.


[viii]Edward McPherson, “Resolutions Against Foreign Mediation”, The Political History of the United States of America, 1863: 346–347.